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    <title>Research in Progress (RIP)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Research in Progress (RIP)</title>
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      <link>https://rip.trb.org/</link>
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    <item>
      <title>Ku-Band Array Antenna for Using LEO Satellite Signals in PNT</title>
      <link>https://rip.trb.org/View/2458988</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This project explores the use of signals from OneWeb and Starlink LEO satellite networks as an alternative to traditional Global Positioning System/Global Navigation Satellite System (GPS/GNSS) for positioning and navigation, aiming to overcome limitations like satellite visibility and signal strength. The CARMEN+ team at The Ohio State University, led by Dr. Zak Kassas, achieved 7.7-meter position accuracy using Starlink signals with commercial off-the-shelf horn antennas. The research seeks to design, fabricate, and test a low-profile Ku-band antenna array with 4-6 elements, focusing on optimizing beam-forming performance to ensure uninterrupted and accurate positioning. The project will use advanced digital beam-forming techniques to enhance satellite tracking and signal strength, ultimately aiming to improve positioning accuracy and robustness against interferences. Expected outcomes include a prototype antenna design, validated performance measurements, and potential new intellectual property.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 21 Nov 2024 17:32:51 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://rip.trb.org/View/2458988</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Defending Against GNSS Jamming and Spoofing by Multi-Sensor Integration</title>
      <link>https://rip.trb.org/View/2329754</link>
      <description><![CDATA[While GNSS is the primary means to provide absolute position information in transportation systems, radio frequency methods to detect anomalous GNSS signals may not enable their exclusion in all events. The multiple sensors incorporated into advanced vehicles and transportation systems offer unique opportunities to combat nefarious activities such as GNSS jamming and spoofing to maintain PNT accuracy and integrity. This project will involve three research directions related to GNSS multi-sensor augmentation.

(1) INS Augmentation. Spoofing relies on accurate prediction of a victim GNSS antenna’s future trajectory to compute and broadcast RF signals to fool the receiver tracking loops on the target vehicle. The vehicle sprung mass, lane curvature, and human driving all add uncertainty around the predicted trajectory, making it difficult to predict GNSS antenna motion. Therefore, the research team questions the ability of a spoofer to predict a target vehicle trajectory with sufficient accuracy to avoid detection. The research team will investigate whether an integrated INS/GNSS with a position-domain innovation sequence detector is sensitive enough to detect the onset of spoofing by monitoring the accumulated time history of normalized KF innovations.

(2) Virtual Augmentation for Ground Vehicles. Unlike aircraft, ground vehicles are subject to kinematic constraints. For example, their lateral (“cross-track”) motion is subject to nonholonomic constraints (i.e., under no-slip conditions, the rear wheels can only move longitudinally, not laterally). Encoders on the four wheels provide information about wheel velocity and slip. Both the wheel speed information and the kinematic constraints can be incorporated into PNT algorithms. The research team will investigate the utility of such methods for detection of anomalous PNT information (e.g., jamming and spoofing).

(3) Multi-sensor Augmentation. Jamming and spoofing only affect the GNSS receiver; therefore, information extracted from additional on-board sensors (e.g., cameras, lidar, radar, ultrasound, IMU, wheel encoders) offer unique opportunities for enhancing PNT resilience. Research will focus on PNT solutions incorporating data from the diversity of sensors to improve both PNT accuracy and detection of anomalous PNT information from all sensors.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 31 Jan 2024 15:02:17 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://rip.trb.org/View/2329754</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>GNSS Anti-Jam &amp; Anti-Spoof Antenna Technology for Multimodal Transportation</title>
      <link>https://rip.trb.org/View/2329726</link>
      <description><![CDATA[One strategy for toughening receivers is direction-of-arrival sensing. The technique relies on a multi-element GNSS antenna or the equivalent. Such techniques are uniquely well suited to the detection and mitigation of jamming and spoofing attacks on land, air, and sea vehicles. The research team has examined and developed several multi-element technologies such as controlled reception pattern antennas (CRPA) based on commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components and dual polarization antennas (DPA). CRPA and DPA enable spoofing detection as they are sensitive to the direction of arrival (DOA) of each incoming signal. Spoofing can be detected if the indicated DOAs do not align with anticipated DOA or if the DOAs of all satellite signals come from one direction as may be expected with a single-antenna spoofer. Additionally, CRPAs and DPAs can produce nulls, mitigating the effects of interference. The research team proposes two developments with the goal of transferring these capabilities to manufacturers for use in civil applications.

(1) CRPA development has not been widely explored for civilian transportation due to export restrictions on the number of antenna elements and their capabilities. However, some restrictions have recently been relaxed. Additionally, the technology to have large arrays of antennas is widely available (e.g., used in 5G technology which have about 1000 elements) and not cost prohibitive (Starlink base stations cost $599). The research team has developed small arrays (4 elements or less) compliant with current restrictions. The research team will explore arrays that meet current restrictions and those that do not, the latter to explore the possible benefits to R-PNT in advanced transportation systems of further relaxation of restrictions.

(2) DPA for spoofer detection is a newer technology that utilizes an antenna that can receive both left-hand and right-hand circularly polarized (LHCP, RHCP) signals to
induce DOA sensitivity. This concept came out of a 2016 Stanford Ph.D. thesis. The research team later demonstrated that it can be built using COTS parts. The research team flight tested this concept in 2019. Two implementations were tested – one based on COTS GNSS chipset where the estimation of DOA effects took several seconds due to a serial search process needed to find the incoming phase offset between the LHCP and RHCP. The other used custom software receiver processing to directly solve for the phase ambiguity. One challenge with this concept is building a system that can make continuous DOA calculations using COTS hardware. A second challenge is to develop techniques for handling DOA errors and measurement ambiguity (e.g., 180-degree ambiguity).]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 31 Jan 2024 14:12:10 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://rip.trb.org/View/2329726</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Enhanced Cybersecurity via Smart Antenna Technology for V2X</title>
      <link>https://rip.trb.org/View/2299467</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Problem Statement: V2X/C-V2X is a vital component in realizing Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) and connected autonomous vehicles as it can greatly improve road safety and enable high levels of automation. Like all wireless communication systems, V2X/C-V2X faces operational and cybersecurity risks which include signal blockage, intentional/unintentional interferences, and hacking. Such risks will only increase with wider deployment of ITS and the increasing number of connected autonomous vehicles and V2X/C-V2X nodes. While the data security of V2X/C-V2X can be safeguarded by advanced encryptions, and normal unintentional interferences can be mitigated by modern waveform coding schemes or spectrum management, the signal blockage and malicious intentional interference issues must be addressed at the RF front-end before reaching the amplification or digitization stages. Similar issues have long been encountered in terrestrial and aerial Global Positioning System (GPS)/Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) navigation systems.  These issues have been effectively mitigated by employing multi-element antenna systems that support adaptive beamforming and interference-nulling electronics. The research team has developed several different advanced designs of anti-jam GPS/GNSS antenna systems with four to eight antenna elements for critical DoD applications. Such antenna systems utilize multiple co-located elements that have been carefully designed to achieving maximum beamforming and pattern nulling performance within a small co-located package. However, such antenna technology has not been applied to ITS applications due to cost, size, and weight. Therefore, there is need for a innovative compact and inexpensive multi-element antenna system design with optimal gain and pattern performance for supporting beamforming and interference-nulling of V2X/C-V2X signals. 

Objectives:  This research effort aims to develop a compact inexpensive V2X/C-V2X antenna system design which has 4 antenna elements with suitable gain and pattern characteristics for achieving optimal beamforming and interference-nulling operations. Note that this approach is different from the MIMO approaches and can achieve superior signal-to-interference-and-noise ratio improvement at the RF front end when used will appropriate electronics.  

Scope: This 1-year effort will involve developing an initial 4-element antenna system design concept, optimizing design parameters against target gain and pattern performance, developing a low-cost fabrication and assembling strategy, fabricating a prototype, and validating design performance by measuring the prototype. 

Methods: The initial design concept and its subsequent design optimizations will be conducted using state-of-art electromagnetic numerical modeling tools. These design optimizations will be constrained by low-cost materials, minimum form factors, light weight, and inexpensive fabrication and integration processes. The gain and pattern of the fabricated antenna will be validated via measurements using the OSU ElectroScience Lab’s state-of-the-art compact range facility.
]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 01 Dec 2023 05:06:47 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://rip.trb.org/View/2299467</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>RF and Antenna Threats, Risks, and Mitigations for GNSS Receivers</title>
      <link>https://rip.trb.org/View/1986927</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The physical arrangement and design of jamming and spoofing, the RF propagation environment, the antenna patterns of the receiver, receiver motion, and RF component design in the receiver front-end all play a role in how much an adversary can impact PNT. The properties of GNSS antenna and RF components within the GNSS receiver front-end electronics are expected to be critical to the protection efficacy against PNT threats. Therefore, testing standards will necessarily involve characterization of these components at an RF level in order to establish PNT risks in relevant threat scenarios. The study team will develop and formalize the RF testing standards of GNSS antenna and front-end electronics. The team will apply their extensive understanding of RF testing chambers and simulated RF signal injection (using software-defined radios (SDRs) and lab RF equipment) as a key component of RF testing standard development.
Mitigation methods for RF signal threats (jammers and spoofers) will involve specialized antennas with multiple modes or elements to support identification of threats via direction of arrival, polarization, etc. It will also involve front-end filtering, limiting, enhanced dynamic-range, and blanking techniques. Testing standards for these mitigation systems will require characterization of the efficacy of these approaches at an RF level. Furthermore, it is expected that testing standards will involve creation or simulation of RF signal environments. ++++++++++

(Task 3.1) RF PNT Threat Scenario Evaluation: 
The study team will study the impact of each PNT threat scenario on received GNSS performance at an RF level. ++++++++++

(Task 4.1) Resilient Receiver Antenna Validation (standards and guidelines): 
The study team will study the characterization and testing of specialized antenna based mitigation approaches.
]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 29 Jun 2022 14:48:15 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://rip.trb.org/View/1986927</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Improving Subsurface Non-metallic Utility Locating Using Self-Aligning Robotic Ground Penetrating Radar</title>
      <link>https://rip.trb.org/View/1743188</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Main Objective: ULC Robotics will develop a pre-commercial prototype robotic locating system that will reduce accidental penetration of buried utilities. This will be achieved by improving the quality of image and location data using self-adapting antenna configurations that increase the probability of detection. Two robotic carts will autonomously align themselves to each other and to the buried utilities to obtain the best Signal to Noise Ratio. By automating sensor scanning, data processing, and locating, the operator training requirements will be minimized, and the cost of deployment will be much lower compared to existing GPR locating services.
First, representative burial conditions will be studied through numerical simulations to assess GPR performance in varying antenna configurations. This will be used as input to path planning logic for autonomous operation. Software will be developed for data collection, control and command, data processing, and data visualization.
The robotic carts will be designed, fabricated, and tested. Various techniques to improve image quality during the scanning processes will be employed which will be implemented in software and control. ULC will test the prototype at utility partners' sites and determine improvements that will accelerate the transition of the prototype to a commercial product. Combining low-risk robotic technologies and known antenna scanning techniques will rapidly make this solution commercially available. Most importantly, the increased probability of detection will reduce the chances of third-party damage during excavation and improve public safety.

Public Abstract: Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is used extensively for locating underground pipelines and preventing third-party damage. ULC Robotics has tested and evaluated a promising method for deploying GPR in urban and rural areas that will maximize Signal-to-Noise ratio, increase the probability of detection, and reduce false alarms. Using commercially available GPR and a custom robotic mobile platform, scanning will be performed through automatic antenna alignment and path planning. Object detection and classification will filter out the clutter and surrounding objects. An intuitive user interface will render 3D objects that will improve the identification of the target asset and other neighboring utilities while minimizing operator's training requirements. A robotic mobile platform will allow for increased consistency in scanning and signal interpretation while enabling automatic generation of utility maps.
This project co-funded by the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) will focus on developing the prototype robotic system which will subsequently be followed by rapid commercialization. During the project, numerical simulation and testing will be performed to determine the optimal antenna configurations required for varying pipe geometries, burial depths, and soil conditions. The robotic platform and sensing system will be designed, fabricated, and tested at ULC Robotics. After completing the prototype development, the robotic system will be tested in the field to demonstrate its improved locating capabilities.
The robotic system will provide enhanced locating capabilities for both metallic and non-metallic pipelines.

]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 05 Oct 2020 16:12:13 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://rip.trb.org/View/1743188</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Battery-free Antenna Sensors for Strain and Crack Monitoring of Bridge Structures (SN-2)</title>
      <link>https://rip.trb.org/View/1482757</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Fatigue cracks need to be monitored in fracture critical elements. Previous research by the PI produced an RFID (radiofrequency identification) sensor prototype that can accurately measure tens of micro-strains in laboratory. The antenna sensor was made on a glass microfiber-reinforced polymer substrate. Although accurate for strain measurement and detection of fatigue cracks in laboratory testing, the sensor performs less satisfactorily in field conditions since the substrate material (RT/duroid® 5880) is susceptible to thermal effect. 
Approach and Methodology: An innovative, battery-free, wireless strain/crack sensor is proposed for bridge monitoring. Unlike conventional smart sensors with wireless transmission of digitized data, the proposed sensor makes use of the strain-dependent (transducer-like) behavior of electromagnetic (EM) waves in an antenna. Upon illumination by a wireless reader that is carried by a human inspector or an aerial robot, the antenna sensor scatters an EM signal back to the reader. The radiation parameters of the antenna sensor, such as resonant frequency and backscattered power level, can be wirelessly interrogated by the reader. When bonded to a base structure to be monitored, a thin planar antenna sensor is deformed as the structure is loaded or experiences cracking. The deformation in a properly designed antenna can cause a significant and observable change of antenna radiation parameters.
Overall Objectives: This project aims to develop and validate a new antenna sensor prototype that has significantly improved thermal stability than previous versions.  In addition, an integrated dual-mode prototype will be developed to allow the sensor operation to benefit from battery power, when available, in active mode. A small circuit with a credit-card size solar panel and a rechargeable coin cell battery will be designed. If the battery is charged by solar power, the sensor operates in the active mode, providing stronger response to the reader.  When the battery is drained up, the sensor automatically falls back to the passive mode, i.e. receiving operational energy completely from reader interrogation.
Scope of Work in Year 1: (1) Select a new substrate material that provides steady performance under temperature changes, (2) Redesign an RFID antenna sensor and characterize its performance in temperature chamber, and (3) Validate the sensor performance in both tensile, compressive, and crack tests.
Scope of Work in Year 2: (1) Test the performance of the new antenna sensor in application settings and compare it with the pervious sensor prototypes and metal foil gages, (2) Extend the wireless interrogation distance by an integrated dual mode sensor design, and (3) Characterize the strain sensing performance of the dual-mode sensor with tensile tests.
]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 14 Sep 2017 21:39:31 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://rip.trb.org/View/1482757</guid>
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